Blog Entry #7 – End of a Journey, Beginning of a New Life, and Optimistic Future

               When I was brought to the settlement, one more thing was asked of me. Maodun spoke saying: “Before you can be one of us, you have to disown your Han origins and tattoo your face with the mark of the Xiongnu” (1). I have already disavowed my allegiance to the Han Empire since I left Dunhuang, but still, the thought of tattooing my face was discomforting. Back in China, tattoos were reserved for criminals, and people of the lowest caste. It seems some Han beliefs stuck around with me after all those years in the Middle Kingdom. But I was no longer in China, and I’ve gotten too far to back out now, and so I proceeded with the tattoo. Soon after, Maodun checked up on me and said: “I know the stigma tattoos bear in the Han. Thus, that mark is a sign of your loyalty to us. I can now say that you are officially one of us.”

               At night the celebrations for my acceptance began. There were games, food, and a lot of drinking. I was impressed with how much these people can drink and still stay mounted on their horses (2). Drunk, Maodun then approached me challenging me to a ‘horseback tug-of-war,’ and said “You really impressed me with your horseback riding skills during your first trial, but let’s see how good you really are.” Slightly worried, as it sounded like a potentially painful game, I answered “I’ve never heard of this game, what do I have to do?” He then explained: “For this game, we will be mounted on our horses, both of us gripping one leather rope, and the goal is to pull the other rider off” (3).  I accepted his challenge, and got on Epona. Slightly drunk myself, I could barely stay on her. He gave me one end of the leather rope, while he held on to the other. A huge crowd quickly encircled us, excited to see the, might I say, rather obvious outcome. However, I was not about to make a fool of myself, and as the crowd counted down, I gripped the object firmly. As soon as the game began, Maodun pulled so hard I was flying through the air and was knocked to the ground. It seems like I have a lot to learn, and experience, before I can truly be like them. Throughout the night, other people challenged me to this game, but considering how drunk I was, I refused as I could barely get on my horse. This game made me realize how embedded horseback riding is in Xiongnu culture. It’s no wonder that every man in this settlement is an able rider and posed such a threat to their southern neighbors.

               Hungover, the next morning I was able to relax a bit and observe Xiongnu life. As I was simply gazing at the people, Maodun startled me asking: “So what do you think? You like it here?” As I was about to reply, I looked at him and noticed his sheepskin hat woven with silk (4). Distracted by this, I completely ignored his question and said: “Nice hat. I’m guessing it was plunder from one of your raids?” He chuckled, then replied:

-        - Nope, this was from trade. Let me tell you something. I’m sure you’ve noticed that most of our food here is meat and milk. Agriculture is not suitable where we live. Sure, we can grow some grain here and there, but it is not enough to sustain our people. And so, to obtain our grain, we rely on the Han, whether it is by raiding them, or by trade. To be completely honest, I would rather have more trade than conflict. But because your ex-countrymen barred us from trading with them, we have no choice but to raid (5). And of course, your people made it even harder for us by building a wall. But a wall won’t stop us when it comes to our survival.

After he said those words, it is as if I have had a revelation. This whole time I saw the Xiongnu as a ruthless warrior-based society, ready to raid for the sake of raiding. Ever since my family passed away, I saw them as a gateway for revenge against the Han. But now, I realize that they do what they have to for their survival. It is not my place to use them for revenge. And to raid is to conduct more killing. I don’t want others to suffer what I experienced.

After some deep thinking, I then decided: I will pave the way for a future of peace. Peace treaties have been made before, but were always broken (6). However, I think my journey since leaving Dunhuang happened for a reason and has equipped me with the tools to create a lasting peace. My brief time with the Xiongnu, and my conversations with Maodun have led me to understand the Xiongnu culture and their ways of survival. They have also accepted me as one of their own. Moreover, my time with An Qian has familiarized me with the world of merchants and commerce. Lastly, I will always be Chinese by blood. I will use my experience to go back to Han China and explain the Xiongnu situation in the hopes of both sides coming to an agreement of understanding, and possibly opening up trade relations. It won’t be easy. It may even be my downfall, considering I’m marked as a traitor. But I have to give it a shot to stop this cycle of violence.

-

(1) According to Ban Guo’s chapter on “The Traditions of the Xiongnu” from his work Book of the Former Han, whenever Chinese envoys were sent to the Xiongnu, envoys needed to have their faces tattooed if they wanted to gain entrance into the yurts. Even though my character is not an envoy, I assume he would have needed to do something similar in order to prove his loyalty.
Ban Guo, “Chapter 94 – Traditions of the Xiongnu” from Hanshu (Book of the former Han).

(2) According to Barfield, “throughout steppe history, the nomads’ appetite for alcohol was legendary and was associated with excess.”
Barfield, Thomas. 2001. The Shadow Empires: Imperial State Formation along the Chinese-Nomad Frontier. In “Empires,” edited by Susan E. Alcock, Terence N. D’Altroy, Kathleen D. Morrison, Carla M. Sinopolis. Cambridge: Cambridge University press. p.21.

 (3) Barfield explains that “the Xiongnu owed their strength to their cavalry. Horse riding skills were sharpened by games in which two riders gripping a single leather thong each attempt to pull the other rider off.”
Ibid., 13.

(4) Barfield also mentions that “the Xiongnu incorporated many foreign goods into the steppe, where they became part of everyday life.” One example is the combination of Chinese silk into sheepskin hat.
Ibid., 20.

(5). Some moments during the Han period, trade in iron to the nomads was banned.
Ibid., 19.

(6) Stated in my first blog entry.

-

Note on Sources and Story

               I use Ban Guo’s “Traditions of the Xiongnu” from his work Book of the Former Han, to explain the function of tattooing one’s face to prove one’s trustworthiness. It is important to note that the Xiongnu themselves did not appear to tattoo their faces. The emphasis, rather, is placed on Chinese envoys sent to Xiongnu territory. In my opinion, the reason Chinese envoys were asked to tattoo their face is to prove their honest dealings in Xiongnu territory, as the Xiongnu probably well-knew that the Han reserved tattoos for the criminals and the classless.

               As for the majority of this entry, I use Barfield’s work to describe the Xiongnu. Although the goal of his chapter was to explain his idea of varying types of empires, such as the shadow empire which the Xiongnu falls within, I only use the facts and descriptions he gives about the Xiongnu.

This is the last blog entry for the story of my Han soldier, and I wanted to end it on a positive note which is why I decided to make him the person who could potentially create a path of peace. I wrote the long dialogue by Maodun (in which he explains to Fai Cheng why they raid the Han) in order to depict the Xiongnu in a more human manner, and so that my character can empathize with them. This would lead to his realization that using the Xiongnu for revenge against the Han would simply perpetuate the cycle of violence between both peoples, and that a route of peace would be possible only if both sides understood each other better. Having experienced life on both camps, Fai Cheng would be the perfect candidate for this task.

Blog Entry #6 – Trials and Defiance

               I have been travelling north east for several days now. Still no sight of any Xiongnu. As expected, tracking them is not going to be easy considering that their settlements are temporary (1). Luckily, I have Epona with me, and An Qian’s supplies have greatly facilitated my trip. Without them, this journey would have been impossible. Moreover, I have come across a number of sites with human activity: traces of bones, fire pits, and temporary housing, so I must be on the right path. But how much longer can I persist on this treacherous path?

               As I said those words, I suddenly noticed a cloud of dust rising in the horizon. A sandstorm! I remounted Epona, and she galloped as fast as she could. I looked for a cave to protect us from this danger, but the land was flat and barren. As the sandstorm approached however I heard the trod of horses. That’s when I realized I found what I was searching for. It was not a sandstorm, but a group of Xiongnu soldiers. I should be excited about this, but I did not know what to do. How do I explain to them I wanted to join their side? I had come prepared with a gift to show my intentions, but An Qian’s words resonated in my head: “The Xiongnu can be ruthless…” Were they going to kill me? I had gotten this far, and I wasn’t going to back out. I rode head-on towards the Xiongnu.

               Noticing me, they encircled me. Their bows at hand, their majestic steeds, and their rustic appearance: they were definitely Xiongnu. Suddenly, one of them pointed their arrow at me, and spoke to me with an aggressive voice. I could not understand what he said. I lifted my hands in the air, and said aloud that I wanted to join them. I opened my bag showing them some jade I procured from Turfan as a gift for them. They did not seem interested. From the sacks they were carrying, probably filled with grain and precious stones, they probably just came back from a raid. I was paralyzed in fear. There was no escape. I thought I was done for, until one man stepped forward, and, in Chinese, saying: “What are you doing here traveller?”

               With my one shot of survival, I explained to him my quest to find the Xiongnu and join their ranks to fight against the Han. With a look empathy, he told the other man to put down his bow, and explained to them my situation. I later discover that his name was Xia Lu, and he was also a Han defector. Then, a huge figure approached, and spoke. I learned that he was their leader: Maodun. He told me: “The Xiongnu and the Han have a history full of conflict. However, some, like Xia Lu, has proven their worth in loyalty and combat. If you want to join us, you also have to prove yourself.” I accepted without question.

               The first trial was a hunt on horseback. The Xiongnu were known to be experts in shooting arrows while on horseback. From an early age, they hone this ability, and embedded in their culture, they become exceptionally fierce on the battlefield (2). The Xiongnu were just as quick as they were powerful. Luckily, ever since An Qian gave me this bow and horse, I had been practicing just that. I was confident in my skill. However, thinking I was going to hunt a deer or boar, one of the Xiongnu released a hawk from its cage, and I was tasked to shoot it down from the sky (3). It was fast, and it soared really high. I made Epona gallop after it with all its might. We were right under the bird, matching its speed. I had one shot to prove myself. I took my arrow, stretched my bow and waited for the perfect moment to shoot. The moment all of Epona’s legs were lifted from the ground was the moment of maximum stability: the time to shoot. I took aim, and as soon as I felt my weight float in that split second of stability, I released my arrow. As soon as I did, the sun’s rays pierced through the clouds and I couldn’t see where my arrow was going to hit. Did I do it? From behind me I heard thud on the ground. It was the hawk.

               I went back to the group with my prey, and they were impressed. “You have great horsemanship and you are skilled with the bow. You have proven your abilities. But now, we will test your resolve” said Maodun while taking his bow, and drawing an arrow. “This arrow whistles through the air, and you will shoot whatever the whistling arrow shoots (4). If I shoot a deer in a herd, you have to shoot that same deer. If I shoot a bird, you shoot that bird. Understand?” he said. I nodded. He then pointed the arrow at Epona, saying “You have a fine horse there.” And without hesitating, he shot his arrow towards her. In response I fired my arrow back towards Maodun, and deflected his arrow. He gave me a serious gaze. The crowd was speechless. To have defied their leader probably meant the death penalty for me. But instead, it seems I have proven my worth.
-

 (1) Psarras confirms their nomadic lifestyle stating: “The Xiongnu move about in search of water and grazing lands; they build neither fortified cities nor permanent dwelling places, and they do not engage in agriculture.”

Psarras, Sophia-Karin. "HAN AND XIONGNU: A REEXAMINATION OF CULTURAL AND POLITICAL RELATIONS (I)." Monumenta Serica 51 (2003): 76. http://www.jstor.org.proxy3.library.mcgill.ca/stable/40727370.

(2) Psarras shows that hunting while practicing mounted archery was embedded in the daily life for the Xiongnu stating: “The children ride sheep and shoot arrows at birds and rats. When they are a little older, they shoot foxes and rabbits, which are used for food. The warriors have great skill in archery, are all horsemen and wear armor.”
Psarras, Sophia-Karin. "HAN AND XIONGNU: A REEXAMINATION OF CULTURAL AND POLITICAL RELATIONS (I)." Monumenta Serica 51 (2003): 6.
http://www.jstor.org.proxy3.library.mcgill.ca/stable/40727370.

(3) According to Psarras, Xiongnu art usually associated Xiongnu with animal of predation, such as leopards and hawks. This is why I chose a hawk as the animal for Fai Cheng to shoot down.
Psarras, Sophia-Karin. "HAN AND XIONGNU: A REEXAMINATION OF CULTURAL AND POLITICAL RELATIONS (I)." Monumenta Serica 51 (2003): 55-236. http://www.jstor.org.proxy3.library.mcgill.ca/stable/40727370.

(4) In Suma Qian’s account of the xiongnu, he shows how ruthless Maodun can be with his “whistling arrow”, ordering his men to shoot whatever the arrow touches, including people.
Suma Qian. Shi Ji 110 – The account of the Xiongnu from “Records of the Grand Historian of China.”
-

Note on sources

I use Psarras’ text to support some of the facts I lay out about the Xiongnu in this blog entry. For example, the fact that they’re nomadic, that they admire horses, that they’re skilled in archery, etc. I learned from her text how, from a young age, children are already practicing how to hunt through play. It shows how embedded hunting is in their lifestyle which translates into their might in battle. We also learn, from her text, about Xiongnu art, and its depiction of animals. This is where I got inspiration for Fai Cheng’s first trial, where he had to shoot a hawk, a predatory animal Xiongnu are usually depict.

As for the idea of a “whistling arrow,” it was taken from Suma Qian’s “Account of the Xiongnu.” According to the author, Maodun indeed had some arrows that whistled in flight. Maodun is known to have ordered his troops to shoot whatever his arrow shot, and that whoever failed to shoot would get executed. Ruthless as he was, he shot one of his best horses, and later his favorite wife. Whether or not this actually happened, I was inspired by this scene to make one of the trials for Fai Cheng. However, instead of having his horse killed, Fai Cheng manages to deflect Maodun’s arrow: a greater feat of courage and demonstration of skill, which allowed him in the ranks of the Xiongnu.

Blog Entry 5: Dreams and Signs

It’s the middle of night, I had just awoken from a very curious dream. Maybe I’ve spent too much time in the cemeteries lately, ravaging the graves of the dead. I rarely have dreams, but when I do, I like to think that they’re divine in nature, and are possibly revelations of the future. This dream in particular was very vivid, and set me in a familiar yet unfamiliar world. This is why I had to write about it.

               It began at an oasis city, similar to where I am currently staying. Surrounding the city was the desert, and within the city was a diverse population and bustling market (1). But it wasn’t Turfan. I could not find the flaming mountains in the east, and the city was much bigger (2). So, where was I? That was the first question I asked myself. I decided to explore, and without much effort, I noticed a colossal structure at the center of the city. It had two tall towers supporting a grand and decorated entrance (3). Was it a palace that housed the emperor? Or a temple to worship the gods? As I entered, I witnessed many people prostrated, all facing the same direction. I was confused. In front of all these people there was no emperor, nor divine image to worship, just a splendid blue wall, meticulously designed (4). As I gazed upon this wall, as if through some divine power, I was put into a trance, and suddenly, I was laying in the midst of a battlefield.

                A person came to me and said: “Get up Abdel! We have to defend the city from the Naiman, or we will be forced to renounce our faith in Allah!” (5) Abdel… was that my name in this dream? And I’m guessing Allah was the God I now served? And who were these Naiman enemies? There was no time to think as I saw the enemy pressing forward. I stood up, realizing I was in a full panoply of armour, and fought. These Naiman troops we were fighting reminded me a lot of the Xiongnu that terrorized the frontier lands of the Han. Their cavalry and archery, again superior to the defending forces, made it obvious: we were going to lose. Suddenly, I was struck by an arrow, and that when I woke up.

               What could this dream have meant? The religion I encountered did not exist as far as I was concerned, and the Naiman who were so similar to the Xiongnu, I ended up fighting against. Will I be fighting against the Xiongnu again sometime soon? Or was this dream a sign of their military superiority, and a hint to join their side? I was still angry at how the Han treated soldiers on the frontier, and how it was because of their ignorance that an uprising emerged and led to the death of my loved ones.

The sun was beginning to rise, and the first rays penetrating the window pointed towards the corner of my room where I had left my bow and arrow. “Another sign…” I thought. It was then when I had decided. I will be heading towards Xiongnu territory. I told An Qian. Good hearted as always, he gave me a horse for my journey. “Take Epona,” he said, “she’ll be of good use to you. She also seems to have taken a liking to you since our travels began. I know you bear a heavy heart, but please, take care of yourself. The Xiongnu can be vicious, and you’ll need to prove your worth.” And so I left.

(1)   Foltz claims that Muslim populations were dominant in commercial activity in the silk road upon their expansion from the 9^th century.

Foltz 1999 “Religions of the Silk Road” pp. 92.

(2)   Picture. The “flaming mountain” is found on the East of Turfan.

(3)   Inspired by The Grand Mosque of Khotan.

(4)   What he witnessed was a mihrab: a semicircular niche in the wall of a mosque that indicates the qibla, the direction towards Mecca, and the direction that Muslims face when praying. Muslim tradition forbids any depiction of their God, Allah, and thus calligraphy and geometric art is used instead to reflect the splendor of their God.

Insoll, Timothy, 2001, The archaeology of Islam. In Archaeology and world religion, edited by Timothy Insoll, London: Routledge, pp. 125-126.

(5)   It is from this passage where we could pinpoint the time and place of Fai Cheng’s dream. Küchlük, a Naiman leader (Naiman was a tribe originating form the Mongol steppe), attacked Khotan in 1211.

Valerie Hansen, “The Silk Road – A New History,” (New York: Oxford University Press), p.229.

Note on story and sources

        I added this dream partly to tie it in with the topic of Islamic expansion for this week. Thus, I looked at the city of Khotan in the 12-13^th century, and expose Fai Cheng to some particularities of Islam. Although he does not know the religion, an informed reader could deduct that this dream alludes to Islam due to the non-depiction of their God, the prostration of the believers facing a specific direction, the Mihrab, etc.

        However, this dream is also used to stir up questions within Fai Cheng. In his dream, he encounters another conflict with steppe peoples which remind him of the Xiongnu. We learn that the death of his family is still in his mind, and that this antagonism towards the Han is still present. He interprets this dream as a sign to join the Xiongnu. Moreover, the bow and arrow that An Qian gave him in the previous blog entry, and the horse he gives him now reflects Fai Cheng’s ‘conversion’ to Xiongnu lifestyle. 

Blog Entry 4 – Road to Turfan and Searching the Dead

               I was getting used to life at Niya. Although not a big city, life in the market place was much more bustling than life in the isolated frontier commanderies. I was also glad, and surprised, to learn that a number of fellow countrymen of mine settled here (1). Foreigners were welcomed here, and I felt comfortable. An Qian had equally been a great blessing, taking me in with open arms. But our life here at Niya was just about to end. Our provisions for the trip to Turfan have been settled, and spring was approaching (2). An Qian and other merchants heading towards Turfan pooled together resources and hired armed guards, including myself, to protect themselves from potential robbers (3).

Before we left, An Qian gave me a gift, and said:
- “You told me you were a soldier, but when I found you, you had no armour nor weapon. You’re my guard! How could you protect me without a weapon?” He said jokingly.
- “So here’s a gift, he continued, for your hard work.”

It was a bow and arrows. I was shocked. Although he did not pay me throughout these past few weeks, he saved my life, and provided me with lodging and food while at Niya.  I was back to my soldiering duties, yet it felt like a rather fresh start. During my days at Dunhuang, I did not feel like I was protecting anyone. Now I feel dedicated, and truly want to protect the man who saved my life. This is what being a soldier must mean.

--

We left at dawn. The road was difficult, but An Qian kept his spirits up by reminding himself of the profit he would make at Turfan. As for me, I became obsessed with the bow. Every time our caravan stopped for a break, I would practice my archery skills. After all, how could I protect anyone if I did not know how to use it? Luckily, I didn’t have to draw out my weapon during this trip. Apart from difficult roads and some rough weather, no bandits appeared.

Something interesting that did appear however, were a number of boulders with familiar drawings on them. They reminded me of the symbols I saw from the Buddhist pilgrims that entered Dunhuang while I was on guard duty (4). It seemed this religion was on the rise, and I wondered if it will one day take over the Han…

Anyways, after walking over 1000 li for several days, we finally arrived at Turfan (5). The city was bustling. Could this be what Chang’an, the city my parents grew up in, may have looked like? (6) While walking around the city, I couldn’t help but observe my surroundings. There were people from all over. Again, there were some fellow countrymen of mine living here, but they had an accent and used terms I was not familiar with (7). I also met a number of Sogdian merchants, whom An Qian spoke highly about, as well as some locals.

At around sundown, An Qian asked me to follow him somewhere. We walked for a good hour, until then he finally said “Ah-ha! Here we are.” It was dark and I couldn’t see very well. I then asked:

- “Why we didn’t bring torches if we were going to walk in this darkness?”

The answer soon became obvious. We had just entered a tomb.

- “Quickly, he said, feel out the area for bones and skulls. People here are known for burying their dead with coins in the mouths of the deceased, and paper as clothing for their bodies (8).”

I couldn’t believe it. An Qian was not just a merchant, but a grave robber! I did not want to argue however, since he did save my life (9). We scavenged for a good period of time, and left with a pouch full of cloth and coins. I asked:

- “Won’t buyers recognize that this paper is dirty and already shaped as clothing?”

- “No matter, he answered. Most locals use recycled paper, because paper is expensive. I just have to unfold and untie these papers, and people will not notice a thing!”

Upon returning back to our inn, I noticed a horrible stench.

- “It’s their custom,” said An Qian probably also realizing the smell. “Most locals are Zoroastrian, which believes that flesh pollutes the pure earth. So, they let scavengers clean out the flesh at night, and in the morning, nothing but cleaned bones are left which are buried in ossuaries” (10)

At this point, I tampered too much with death to judge. Upon returning to the inn, I just went straight to bed. Tomorrow is going to be an intense day at the market.

--

(1) Hansen states that the number of Chinese documents found at Niya suggested a non-military Chinese presence at the side.
Valerie Hansen, “The Silk Road – A New History,” (New York: Oxford University Press), p.36.

(2) Hansen explains in multiple instances in her book that spring is a good time to start travelling, as the snow was melting, water was pouring down the mountains, oasis cities were thriving, and the temperature was more bearable than summer.
Valerie Hansen, “The Silk Road – A New History,” (New York: Oxford University Press).

(3) Merchants often pooled their resources together, and travelled in groups to hire guards for the potential threat or robbers
Valerie Hansen, “The Silk Road – A New History,” (New York: Oxford University Press), p.79.

(4) This picture shows that Buddhist graffiti was done in certain parts of the silk road. However, this picture comes from roughly the 6^th to 8^th century, where drawings of a body to represent the Buddha was permitted. 

Early Buddhist art (5^th – 1^st centuries BCE) however, known as the Aniconic phase, depicted the Buddha through symbols such as footprints, the swastika or the lotus flower (based on class notes). It’s safe to assume that graffiti on the Silk Roads was not reserved to later periods only, and was possible in the time period of our hero. I added this scene to show the spread of religion throughout the silk road. 

(5) Based on the map, Turfan was roughly 800km away from Niya, or roughly 1600li away (1 li being almost half a kilometer).

(6) Although much smaller than Chang’an, according to Hansen, Turfan was one of the largest settlements on the road to Taklamakan. For someone who spent most of this life in Dunhuang, Fai Cheng was delighted with the more city-like environment the Turfan depicted.
Valerie Hansen, “The Silk Road – A New History,” (New York: Oxford University Press), p.83.

(7) Hansen explains how Chinese migrants, and their families adapted to their environments, and adopted local words into their language.
Valerie Hansen, “The Silk Road – A New History,” (New York: Oxford University Press), p.83.

(8) Valerie Hansen, “The Silk Road – A New History,” (New York: Oxford University Press), p.92-93.

(9) This is significant because Confucian hierarchy places merchants as the lowest class. However, below merchants, classless people included those who tamper with the dead. This puts An Qian at a rather low level. But Fai Cheng’s willingness to put this aside shows his disconnection with the Han, the country he technically defected form, thus his disconnection from Confucianism.

(10) Valerie Hansen, “The Silk Road – A New History,” (New York: Oxford University Press), p.98.

--

Notes on story and Sources

Although we were supposed to look at Nestorianism or Manicheanism this week, those religions appear way after Christianity appears, which is way after the time period of my character. To stick with the theme of spreading religions I looked at Zoroastrianism, and slightly mention Buddhism. Concerning the latter, I used the graffiti found in the Karakorum Highway to depict the spread of Buddhism, and how the Silk Road was used as a medium for this spread.

As for Zoroastrianism, I use the region of Turfan to expose our hero to this new religion he hasn’t heard of. He learns, through grave-robbing, Zoroastrians’ belief that rotting flesh pollutes the pure earth. From this experience, he also learns some of the local customs of Turfan, which included burying their dead with recycled paper, and putting coins in their mouths.

Other notes on footnotes.